Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection

Orf virus (ORFV), the prototype species of the parapoxvirus genus, is the causative agent of contagious ecthyma, an extremely devastating skin disease of sheep, goats, and humans that causes enormous economic losses in livestock production. ORFV is known for its ability to repeatedly infect both pre...

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Autores principales:	Alhaji Modu Bukar, Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse, Che Azurahanim Che Abdullah, Mustapha M. Noordin, Zaharaddeen Lawan, Hassana Kyari Mangga, Krishnan Nair Balakrishnan, Mohd-Lila Mohd Azmi
Formato:	article
Lenguaje:	EN
Publicado:	MDPI AG 2021
Materias:	parapoxvirus vaccine immunomodulators vaccination Orf virus Medicine R
Acceso en línea:	https://doaj.org/article/34fc00bd663c40bebfb9dd55280ebb37
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spelling	oai:doaj.org-article:34fc00bd663c40bebfb9dd55280ebb372021-11-25T19:11:28ZImmunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection10.3390/vaccines91113412076-393Xhttps://doaj.org/article/34fc00bd663c40bebfb9dd55280ebb372021-11-01T00:00:00Zhttps://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/9/11/1341https://doaj.org/toc/2076-393XOrf virus (ORFV), the prototype species of the parapoxvirus genus, is the causative agent of contagious ecthyma, an extremely devastating skin disease of sheep, goats, and humans that causes enormous economic losses in livestock production. ORFV is known for its ability to repeatedly infect both previously infected and vaccinated sheep due to several immunomodulatory genes encoded by the virus that temporarily suppress host immunity. Therefore, the development of novel, safe and effective vaccines against ORFV infection is an important priority. Although, the commercially licensed live-attenuated vaccines have provided partial protection against ORFV infections, the attenuated viruses have been associated with major safety concerns. In addition to safety issues, the persistent reinfection of vaccinated animals warrants the need to investigate several factors that may affect vaccine efficacy. Perhaps, the reason for the failure of the vaccine is due to the long-term adaptation of the virus in tissue culture. In recent years, the development of vaccines against ORFV infection has achieved great success due to technological advances in recombinant DNA technologies, which have opened a pathway for the development of vaccine candidates that elicit robust immunity. In this review, we present current knowledge on immune responses elicited by ORFV, with particular attention to the effects of the viral immunomodulators on the host immune system. We also discuss the implications of strain variation for the development of rational vaccines. Finally, the review will also aim to demonstrate future strategies for the development of safe and efficient vaccines against ORFV infections.Alhaji Modu BukarFaez Firdaus Abdullah JesseChe Azurahanim Che AbdullahMustapha M. NoordinZaharaddeen LawanHassana Kyari ManggaKrishnan Nair BalakrishnanMohd-Lila Mohd AzmiMDPI AGarticleparapoxvirusvaccineimmunomodulatorsvaccinationOrf virusMedicineRENVaccines, Vol 9, Iss 1341, p 1341 (2021)
institution	DOAJ
collection	DOAJ
language	EN
topic	parapoxvirus vaccine immunomodulators vaccination Orf virus Medicine R
spellingShingle	parapoxvirus vaccine immunomodulators vaccination Orf virus Medicine R Alhaji Modu Bukar Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse Che Azurahanim Che Abdullah Mustapha M. Noordin Zaharaddeen Lawan Hassana Kyari Mangga Krishnan Nair Balakrishnan Mohd-Lila Mohd Azmi Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection
description	Orf virus (ORFV), the prototype species of the parapoxvirus genus, is the causative agent of contagious ecthyma, an extremely devastating skin disease of sheep, goats, and humans that causes enormous economic losses in livestock production. ORFV is known for its ability to repeatedly infect both previously infected and vaccinated sheep due to several immunomodulatory genes encoded by the virus that temporarily suppress host immunity. Therefore, the development of novel, safe and effective vaccines against ORFV infection is an important priority. Although, the commercially licensed live-attenuated vaccines have provided partial protection against ORFV infections, the attenuated viruses have been associated with major safety concerns. In addition to safety issues, the persistent reinfection of vaccinated animals warrants the need to investigate several factors that may affect vaccine efficacy. Perhaps, the reason for the failure of the vaccine is due to the long-term adaptation of the virus in tissue culture. In recent years, the development of vaccines against ORFV infection has achieved great success due to technological advances in recombinant DNA technologies, which have opened a pathway for the development of vaccine candidates that elicit robust immunity. In this review, we present current knowledge on immune responses elicited by ORFV, with particular attention to the effects of the viral immunomodulators on the host immune system. We also discuss the implications of strain variation for the development of rational vaccines. Finally, the review will also aim to demonstrate future strategies for the development of safe and efficient vaccines against ORFV infections.
format	article
author	Alhaji Modu Bukar Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse Che Azurahanim Che Abdullah Mustapha M. Noordin Zaharaddeen Lawan Hassana Kyari Mangga Krishnan Nair Balakrishnan Mohd-Lila Mohd Azmi
author_facet	Alhaji Modu Bukar Faez Firdaus Abdullah Jesse Che Azurahanim Che Abdullah Mustapha M. Noordin Zaharaddeen Lawan Hassana Kyari Mangga Krishnan Nair Balakrishnan Mohd-Lila Mohd Azmi
author_sort	Alhaji Modu Bukar
title	Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection
title_short	Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection
title_full	Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection
title_fullStr	Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection
title_full_unstemmed	Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection
title_sort	immunomodulatory strategies for parapoxvirus: current status and future approaches for the development of vaccines against orf virus infection
publisher	MDPI AG
publishDate	2021
url	https://doaj.org/article/34fc00bd663c40bebfb9dd55280ebb37
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Immunomodulatory Strategies for Parapoxvirus: Current Status and Future Approaches for the Development of Vaccines against Orf Virus Infection

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